Does the concept of the immortal soul come from the Greeks?

Jehovah Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventist and Christadelphians contend that Christians adopted the concept of the immortal soul from the Greeks. For that reason, they reject the soul, which explains their shared belief in annihilationism. Ironically, they have no problems with adopting the use of allegory, which originates from Greek thought. They believe in the concept of soul sleep, that the soul is unconscious and "sleeps" in death until the resurrection at Christ's second coming. It's true, the Bible does refer to death as "sleep" on occasion, but it does so as a euphemism, as someone dead has the appearance of someone asleep. 

They primarily focus on the Old Testament and retroactively filter and interpret the New Testament through that lens. This is a backwards approach as older revelation should be interpreted through the lens of newer revelation. A common response is Moses never talked about the soul. Well, Moses didn't speak about a great many things, including the resurrection. The Hebrew Bible has a very narrow focus, which was God's dealings with Israel. It would seem impractical to have one's doctrinal support rest primarily on what Moses did or did not say or even on the Old Testament alone. The bible is one book. You can't disregard part of it without disregarding the whole.

Was the Old Testament really so silent about the soul and the afterlife? Yes and no. The Old Testament saints had a more negative or neutral attitude towards death because there was no pathway for them to ascend to heaven before Christ came; more on that later. They did, however, have the hope that God would provide the means for them. That’s why they spoke mostly about the grave (Sheol) in the Old Testament with little emphasis on the afterlife.

So, did Christians via the Jews get the concept of the immortal soul from the Greeks? First things first, the Greeks didn't invent the soul, they merely philosophized it. The concept of the human soul was universal across all cultures. Second, I think it's easy to dispel that theory from the story of the Witch of Endor alone. Recall that Saul went to see the Witch of Endor to summon the ghost or spirit of Samuel. Much to the witch's surprise, she summoned what appeared to be the spirit of Samuel (1Sa 28). Now, whether this spirit was actually Samuel or a trick, demon, or hallucination does not really matter to this discussion. What's important is it clearly demonstrates that the ancient Israelites understood the concept of an immortal, disembodied spirit (soul) existing apart from the body by at least 1010 BC. This was well before Greek influence and Hellenization began around 332 BC and peaked from 175 to 167 BC in Judea.

The concept of an afterlife was already known to the Hebrews. The Hebrew word used for the grave was "Sheol." Sheol doesn't just mean the grave; it also means the underworld, the abode of the dead. The implication is that while their body went to the grave, their soul went to the underworld. That's why when they died, it says they were gathered to their ancestors. It doesn't mean they were merely gathered in the tomb, but they were gathered with their people in the afterlife. Ecclesiastes 12:7 says, "And the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit returns to God who gave it," demonstrating a distinction and separation between the body and soul after death.

Then there are Enoch and Elijah. Enoch walked or pleased God and was taken (Gen 5:24), meaning that he did not die. If there are any doubts, Hebrews 11:5 affirms that Enoch was taken up so he wouldn't see death. Elijah, likewise, was taken to heaven in a whirlwind (2Ki 2:1-12). This poses a problem for those that believe in soul sleep, as it clearly demonstrates that the righteous go to paradise once they leave this earth. The Jehovah Witnesses will try to get around this by saying that only a select few (144,000) chosen by God will rule with Jesus Christ in heaven as part of a heavenly government, even though it doesn't say this in Revelation or anywhere else in Scripture.

Another variation of this argument is that Christianity adopted ideas of the afterlife from the Egyptians. I find it curious that people assume cultural exchange only goes one way. Egyptian and Greek cultures didn't develop in a vacuum; they were also influenced by their neighbors, including the Semitic peoples. Do similarities exist between the Greek understanding of the soul and predominant Christian understanding of the soul? Sure, just as similarities exist between the Hebrews’ understanding of the underworld, Sheol, and that of their neighbors in Mesopotamia (Kur/Irkalla) and the Levant (ʾArṣ/Mot).

However, just because similarities exist does not prove borrowing. There are many biblical motifs, for example, that share similar themes with pagan motifs without adoption. Also, similarities don’t automatically invalidate something as untrue. The Genesis flood account mirrors the Chaldean flood tradition as told in the Epic of Gilgamesh. However, no one would accuse Moses, the supposed writer of Genesis, of adopting pagan flood traditions.

And while there are some Christian theologians who were in part influenced by Aristotle's understanding of the soul, such as Thomas Aquinas, it wasn’t without justification. Thomas Aquinas’ rationale was that even pagans could discover the truth through philosophical reasoning, and if something is true, it belongs to the Lord, no matter the source. Therefore, it wasn’t so much as borrowing as arriving to similar conclusions. In the same way, many ancient Greek philosophers also came to believe in the existence of a supreme being, because it was reasonable and logical to do so. Yet, no one would argue that Christians got their ideas about God from the Greeks, and rightfully so.

Moreover, whatever similarities exist, there exists a multitude of differences. The Greeks may have believed in disembodied souls but not bodily resurrection like the Christians. Nor did Christians believe in eternal disembodied souls as the Greeks did. Likewise, the Egyptians believed in the concept of the soul, but it vastly differed from Christian belief. They believed the soul was comprised of multiple components, wasn't fully disembodied, and could even come back to the tomb to revisit the body and partake of food and drink offerings. So, to say that Christians got their ideas of the soul and the afterlife from the pagans ignores the major differences between them. On to the New Testament....

After the resurrection of Jesus, there is a distinct shift in tone when speaking of the afterlife. There is more emphasis on heaven, the afterlife, and eternal rewards. That’s because there's something known as progressive revelation. Not everything was revealed to the Old Testament saints. They didn't know, for example, that the Messiah would be born of a virgin, though there were hints given. Nor did they foresee the church age or the inclusion of the gentiles. Such things would have been foreign to them. There was more revealed to the New Testament saints, including greater insights into the soul and the afterlife. 

Taken at face value, and not allegorized, the New Testament unequivocally supports the notion of an immortal soul that departs the body after death, dispelling the concept of soul sleep. The following are but a few of those verses:

"We are confident, I say, and willing rather to be absent from the body, and to be present with the Lord." (2Co 5:8)

"I know a man in Christ who fourteen years ago—whether in the body I do not know, or whether out of the body I do not know, God knows—such a one was caught up to the third heaven. And I know such a man—whether in the body or out of the body I do not know, God knows—how he was caught up into Paradise and heard inexpressible words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter." (2Co 2-4)

"And he (Jesus) was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became white as light. And behold, there appeared to them Moses and Elijah, talking with him. (Mat 17:2-3). The apostilles here witnessed Moses and Elijah talking with Jesus long after they had died."

I had a Jehovah's Witness try to get around the literal interpretation of this verse by framing it strictly as an intangible "vision," but multiple people typically don't have the same vision. It would be like multiple people having the same exact dream; it doesn't happen. It's true that some translations use the word "vision," but when we look at the Greek word behind it, "horama," it doesn't necessarily mean something that isn't real, like a dream, but is something extraordinary or significant. The context determines the interpretation. Clearly, the apostles present believed it was real; why else would Jesus tell them not to talk about it? A variation of this word is used to describe Moses "seeing" a burning bush (Acts 7:31). There is no one arguing that Moses actually saw a burning bush.

"When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God and for the witness they had borne." (Rev 6:9)

You can’t cry out to God if your soul is dead or “asleep.” In Revelation 20:4, John sees a flashforward where they come to life and reign with Christ for a thousand years. Clearly then, they were crying out to God AFTER they had died but BEFORE they are resurrected and reign with Christ.

"And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, Today shalt thou be with me in paradise." (Luk 23:43).

This one is explained away due to the lack of punctuation in the original texts. So, the argument is it could just as easily be interpreted as, "Verily I say unto thee today, shalt thou be with me in paradise." This, of course, changes the entire context of that verse. It's true that the original Greek text lacked modern punctuation. However, the consensus of most biblical scholars is to place a comma before "today" and not after and early translations, such as the Latin Vulgate, were already doing that. It makes more sense contextually as it was obvious Jesus was speaking that day and because "Verily I say unto thee" was a commonly used fixed expression that stood on its own. Jesus emphasized "today" because he knew they would all die on the same day, and they likely did. Jesus was already dead when the soldiers came to break the legs of the thieves on the cross to hasten their death.

"After Jesus was resurrected, the tombs were opened, and the bodies of many saints who died were also raised from the dead." (Mat 27:52).

For those who believe in soul sleep, this verse is another problem. Where did these resurrected saints come from? Most importantly, where did they go after they were resurrected if only a select few go to heaven? If that were true, then it would mean they are still walking among us today, as it's appointed for man to die only once. The only logical conclusion is they ascended to heaven with Jesus.

Lastly, there's the parable, or story, of the rich man and Lazarus spoken about by Jesus. Again, whether it’s meant to be taken literally or figuratively is not what’s important. What is important is that the rich man and Lazarus are depicted as having souls that live on beyond the grave, just as the spirit of Samuel. If the concept of the immortal soul came from the Greeks, it wouldn’t explain why Jesus thought to include such pagan ideas in his sermon. It also doesn’t explain why he never refuted it as being a false pagan concept. In fact, nowhere in the Bible will you find such a repudiation.

As an aside, I believe it was not a parable and would explain why the Hebrews never talked much about the afterlife. Sheol was a place where both the righteous and unrighteous went after death. It wasn't exactly something they looked forward to because the righteous who died prior to the resurrection of Christ couldn’t automatically ascend to heaven; their sins had not yet been atoned for. For them, Sheol was regarded with dread, resignation, and separation from God's presence.

Still, they had hope God would provide a means for them. David said, “For you will not abandon my soul to Sheol, or let your holy one see corruption.” (Psa 16:10). David prophesied the future. After Jesus was resurrected, the tombs were opened, and the bodies of many saints who died were also raised from the dead (Mat 27:52). After Christ ascended to heaven and shed his blood on the mercy seat, the righteous in Sheol (Abraham's bosom) were finally able to ascend to heaven with Christ.