I've had this debate with Jehovah Witnesses. They believe in the concept of soul sleep, the belief that the soul is unconscious and "sleeps" in death until the resurrection at Christ's second coming. Other groups like the Seventh-day Adventist and Christadelphians also hold this view. It's true that the Bible does refer to death as "sleep" on occasion, but it does so as a euphemism, as someone dead has the appearance of someone asleep.
They will focus mostly on the Old Testament because there is less emphasis on the afterlife and particularly on Moses and the Hebrew Bible. I find it odd that they restrict their support to predominately the first five books of the Bible and not the Bible as a whole. The common response is Moses never talked about it. Well, Moses didn't speak about a great many things, including the resurrection. The Hebrew Bible has a very narrow focus, which is the establishment of Israel and the Levitical laws. It would seem impractical to have one's doctrinal support rest primarily on what Moses did or did not say or even on the Old Testament alone.
Was the Old Testament really so silent about the soul and the afterlife? Yes and no. The Old Testament saints had a more negative or neutral attitude towards death because there was no pathway for them to ascend to heaven before Christ came; more on that later. They did, however, have the hope a path would be provided for them. That’s why they only speak of the grave in the Old Testament with little emphasis on the afterlife.
So, was the concept of the immortal soul a Greek invention, and did it influence Christianity? I think there's an easy way we can dispel that theory from the story of the Witch of Endor (1Sa 28). Recall that Saul went to see the Witch of Endor to summon the ghost or spirit of Samuel. Much to the witch's surprise, she summoned what appeared to be the spirit of Samuel. Now, whether this spirit was actually Samuel or a trick or demon is not what's relevant here. What is important is the story demonstrates that the ancient Israelites had the concept of a disembodied soul centuries before Greek influence dominated the region, which began around 332 BC.
The concept of the afterlife was already known to the Hebrews. The Hebrew word used for the grave was "Sheol." Sheol doesn't just mean the grave; it also means the underworld, the abode of the dead. The picture is that while their body went to the grave, their soul went to the underworld. That's why when they died, it says they were gathered to their ancestors. They weren't merely gathered in the tomb, but they are gathered with their people in the afterlife. Ecclesiastes 12:7 says, "And the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit returns to God who gave it," demonstrating a distinction and separation between the body and soul after death.
Then there are Enoch and Elijah. Enoch walked or pleased God and was taken (Gen 5:24), implying he did not die but was taken to heaven without tasting death. If there are any doubts, Hebrews 11:5 affirms that Enoch was taken up so he wouldn't see death. Elijah, likewise, was taken to heaven in a whirlwind (2Ki 2:1-12). This poses a problem for those that believe in soul sleep, as it clearly demonstrates that saints go to heaven once they leave this earth. The Jehovah Witnesses will try to get around this by saying that only a select few (144,000) chosen by God will rule with Jesus Christ in heaven as part of a heavenly government, even though Revelation itself does not say this.
Another variation of this argument is that Christianity adopted ideas of the afterlife from the Egyptians. I find it curious that people assume cultural exchange only goes one way. Egyptian and Greek cultures didn't develop in a vacuum; they were influenced by their neighbors, including the Semitic peoples living in the Levant. In any case, correlation does not equal causation. Just because parallels exist between Christian, Egyptian, and Greek beliefs does not prove borrowing. There are plenty of biblical motifs that share similarities to pagan motifs without adoption. Scripture dictates truth, not pagan beliefs.
Moreover, whatever similarities exists, there exists a multitude of differences as well. The Greeks may have believed in disembodied souls but not bodily resurrection like the Christians. Nor did Christians believe in eternal disembodied souls as the Greeks did. Likewise, the Egyptians believed in the concept of the soul, but it vastly differed from the Christian belief. They believed the soul was comprised of multiple components, was tied to the physical body, and wasn't fully disembodied, and so on. To say that Christians got their ideas of the afterlife from the Greeks and Egyptians paints with a broad brush and ignores important differences. On to the New Testament....
After the resurrection of Jesus, there is a distinct shift in tone when speaking of the afterlife. There is more emphasis on heaven, the afterlife, and eternal rewards. That’s because there's something known as progressive revelation. Not everything was revealed to the Old Testament saints. They didn't know, for example, that the Messiah would be born of a virgin, though hints were given. Nor did they foresee the church age or the inclusion of the gentiles. Such things would have been foreign to them. There was more revealed to the New Testament saints, including greater insights into the soul and the afterlife.
Taken at face value, and not allegorizing scripture, the New Testament verses do unequivocally support the notion of an immortal soul that departs the body after death, dispelling the concept of soul sleep. The following are but a few of those verses:
"We are confident, I say, and willing rather to be absent from the body, and to be present with the Lord." (2Co 5:8)
"I know a man in Christ who fourteen years ago—whether in the body I do not know, or whether out of the body I do not know, God knows—such a one was caught up to the third heaven. And I know such a man—whether in the body or out of the body I do not know, God knows—how he was caught up into Paradise and heard inexpressible words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter." (2Co 2-4)
"And he (Jesus) was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became white as light. And behold, there appeared to them Moses and Elijah, talking with him. (Mat 17:2-3). The apostilles here witnessed Moses and Elijah talking with Jesus long after they had died."
I had a Jehovah's Witness try to get around the literal interpretation of this verse by framing it strictly as an intangible "vision," but multiple people typically don't have the same vision. It would be like multiple people having the same exact dream; it doesn't happen. It's true that some translations use the word "vision," but when we look at the Greek word behind it, "horama," it doesn't necessarily mean something that isn't real, like a dream, but that they are seeing something extraordinary or significant. The context determines the interpretation. Clearly, the apostles present believed it was real; why else would Jesus tell them not to talk about it? A variation of this word is used to describe Moses "seeing" a burning bush (Acts 7:31). Is there any doubt that Moses actually saw a burning bush?
"When he opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God and for the witness they had borne." (Rev 6:9)
You can’t cry out to God if your soul is dead or “asleep.” In Revelation 20:4, John sees a flashforward where they come to life and reign with Christ for a thousand years. Clearly then, they were crying out to God after they had died but before they are resurrected and reign with Christ.
"And Jesus said unto him, Verily I say unto thee, Today shalt thou be with me in paradise." (Luk 23:43).
This one is explained away due to the lack of punctuation in the original texts. So, it could just as easily be interpreted as, "Verily I say unto thee today, shalt thou be with me in paradise." This, of course, changes the entire context of that verse. It's true that the original Greek text lacked modern punctuation. However, the consensus of most biblical scholars is to place a comma before "today" and not after. "Verily I say unto thee" was a commonly used fixed expression that stood on its own. By placing a comma after "today," it disrupts the contextual flow. Early translations, such as the Latin Vulgate, were already placing the comma before "today."
"After Jesus was resurrected, the tombs were opened, and the bodies of many saints who died were also raised from the dead." (Mat 27:52).
For those who believe in soul sleep, this verse presents a problem. Where did these resurrected saints come from? Most importantly, where did they go after they were resurrected if only a select few go to heaven? If that were true, then it would mean they are still walking among us today, as it's appointed for man to die only once. The only logical conclusion is they ascended to heaven with Jesus.
Lastly, the parable, or story, of the rich man and Lazarus demonstrates Jesus believed in the concept of the immortal soul. This is often dismissed as a parable, though it wouldn't explain why Jesus would include a supposed pagan concept in His sermon knowing it was false. Whether it is or isn't a parable is not what's important here. What's important is that it demonstrates that Jesus advocated the belief in an immortal soul apart from the body and never refuted it. In fact, nowhere in the Bible will you find the concept of the immortal soul refuted when they obviously knew about it.
As an aside, I believe it was not a parable and would explain why the Hebrews never talked much about the afterlife. Sheol was a place where both the righteous and unrighteous went after death. It wasn't exactly something they looked forward to because the righteous who died prior to the resurrection of Christ couldn’t automatically ascend to heaven; their sins had not yet been atoned for. For them, Sheol was regarded with dread, resignation, and separation from God's presence.
Still, they had hope God would provide a means for them. David said, “For you will not abandon my soul to Sheol, or let your holy one see corruption.” (Psa 16:10). David prophesied the future. After Jesus was resurrected, the tombs were opened, and the bodies of many saints who died were also raised from the dead (Mat 27:52). After Christ ascended to heaven and shed his blood on the mercy seat, the righteous in Sheol (Abraham's bosom) were finally able to ascend to heaven with Christ.
